Authors
Adam Tzur (FB, SCI-FIT),
Acknowledgements
Alex Leaf (FB, Examine.com)
Published: December 7, 2017
Updated: May 16, 2018
March 9, 2018 - Added Campbell et al. (2018)
May 16, 2018 - Added Joy et al., 2018
Summary
Overview of the overfeeding literature
If you eat more food than you need to maintain body weight, you are overfeeding or overeating. This is also known as eating a caloric surplus.
- Body fat and lean mass typically increase when overfeeding.
- Protein may limit body fat gain, and in some circumstances prevent it entirely.
- Overfeeding fats and carbs typically leads to similar gains in body weight and body fat
- Overfeeding on nuts leads to unexpectedly little body fat gain
- The body will often partially compensate for excess energy intake by increasing energy expenditure (i.e. eat more, move more). This can help limit fat gain.
The Science of Overfeeding
In the scientific literature, overfeeding is typically done by estimating how much energy the subjects expend on a daily basis (Total Daily Energy Expenditure). Then, the scientists ask the subjects to eat more food than usual, or the food could also be provided to the subjects (aka feeding studies).
From there, they can measure how much more energy the subjects consumed compared to their habitual diet.
Some studies are done in metabolic wards where the scientists can control most relevant aspects of a subject’s life, such as physical movement, exercise, other activities, and food intake. Search for “metabolic ward” to find these studies.
Overfeeding studies are interesting because they allow researchers to measure how the body reacts to energy excess.
Overfeeding vs. overeating
Overfeeding implies that a person is feeding someone else. In the context of this study collection, researchers are overfeeding study participants. Overeating implies that a person is eating "too much" on his or her own accord.
Newsletter
Stay updated on the science.
Sign up for the newsletter.
Quotes from overfeeding studies
“(...) despite the total increase in energy intake during the high protein phase, subjects did not experience an increase in fat mass.” - Antonio et al., 2016
"Dietary protein appears to have a protective effect against fat gain during times of energy surplus, especially when combined with resistance training. Therefore, the evidence suggests that dietary protein may be the key macronutrient in terms of promoting positive changes in body composition." - Leaf and Antonio, 2017
"Another important finding from the study was the high protein group lost a significant amount of fat mass whereas reductions in the low-protein group were not statistically significant. These results held true despite the fact that those the higher protein group ingested significantly more kilocalories (approximately 400 kcals) in the form of protein." - Campbell et al. 2018
"Among persons living in a controlled setting, calories alone account for the increase in fat; protein affected energy expenditure and storage of lean body mass, but not body fat storage." - Bray et al., 2012
"Excess energy, as fat, does not acutely increase [24 hour energy expenditure], which rises slowly as body weight increases. Excess energy as protein acutely stimulates [24 hour energy expenditure] and [sleep energy expenditure]." - Bray et al., 2015
"Interestingly, high-protein diets in both hypo- and normocaloric conditions have shown to improve body composition, whereas in combination with hypercaloric conditions does not seem to increase fat mass, when the excess energy comes from protein." - Morales et al., 2017
“(...) peanut consumption elicited a strong compensatory dietary response (ie subjects compensated for 66% of the energy provided by the nuts) and body weight gain (1.0 kg) was significantly lower than predicted (3.6 kg; P<0.01). (...) Resting energy expenditure was increased by 11% after regular peanut consumption for 19 weeks (P<0.01).” - Alper and Mattes, 2002
“Two weeks of snacking based on peanuts does not cause the same negative metabolic effects as an isocaloric diet in which the snacking is based on short acting carbohydrates in the form of candy in non-obese healthy subjects” - Claesson et al., 2009
“smaller than expected weight gains from overeating (luxuskonsumption) were largely explained by increased thermogenesis, except when the diet was high in protein and fat.” - Webb and Annis, 1983
"There was no significant difference in fat balance during controlled overfeeding with fat, fructose, glucose, or sucrose." - McDevitt et al. 2000
"Excess dietary fat leads to greater fat accumulation than does excess dietary carbohydrate, and the difference was greatest early in the overfeeding period." - Horton et al. 1995
"(...) fat storage during overfeeding of isoenergetic amounts of diets rich in carbohydrate or in fat was not significantly different, and carbohydrates seemed to be converted to fat by both hepatic and extrahepatic lipogenesis." - Lammert et al. 2000
“Subjects gained 7.6 ± 2.1 kg (55% fat) and insulin sensitivity decreased 18% (P < 0.001) after overfeeding” - Johannsen et al., 2014
Notable researchers
Studies:
- The Effects of Overfeeding on Body Composition: The Role of Macronutrient Composition
- The effects of consuming a high protein diet (4.4 g/kg/d) on body composition in resistance-trained individuals
- A high protein diet (3.4 g/kg/d) combined with a heavy resistance training program improves body composition in healthy trained men and women
- The effects of a high protein diet on indices of health and body composition
- A High Protein Diet Has No Harmful Effects: A One-Year Crossover Study in Resistance-Trained Males
Studies:
- Effects of energy imbalance on energy expenditure and respiratory quotient in young and older men: A summary of data from two metabolic studies
- Effects of Age on Energy Expenditure and Substrate Oxidation During Experimental Overfeeding in Healthy Men
- Energy expenditure and subsequent nutrient intakes in overfed young men
Overfeeding study collection
Reviews of studies (5)
| Study | Type | Year | Authors |
|---|---|---|---|
| The Effects of Overfeeding on Body Composition: The Role of Macronutrient Composition (link) | Review | 2017 | Leaf and Antonio |
| What have human experimental overfeeding studies taught us about adipose tissue expansion and susceptibility to obesity and metabolic complications? (link) | Review | 2017 | Cuthbertson et al. |
| Resistance to weight gain during overfeeding: a NEAT explanation (link) | Review | 2001 | Vanltallie |
| Metabolic adaptations to over—and underfeeding—still a matter of debate? (link) | Review | 2012 | Westerterp |
| Energy expenditure during overfeeding (link) | Review | 2006 | Joosen and Westerterp |
General overfeeding studies (13)
| Study | Type | Year | Authors |
|---|---|---|---|
| The effect of 6 weeks of overfeeding on the body weight, body composition, and energy metabolism of young men (link) | Trial | 1980 | Norgan and Durnin |
| Specific appetite, energetic and metabolomics responses to fat overfeeding in resistant-to-bodyweight-gain constitutional thinness (link) | Trial | 2014 | Germain et al. |
| Higher Daily Energy Expenditure and Respiratory Quotient, Rather Than Fat-Free Mass, Independently Determine Greater ad Libitum Overeating (link) | Trial | 2015 | Piaggi |
| The response to long-term overfeeding in identical twins (link) | Trial | 1990 | Bouchard et al. |
| Long-term increase of fat mass after a four week intervention with fast food based hyper-alimentation and limitation of physical activity (link) | Trial | 2010 | Ernersson et al. |
| Effect of overfeeding macronutrients on day-to-day food intake in man (link) | Trial | 1996 | Johnstone et al. |
| Effect of carbohydrate overfeeding on whole body macronutrient metabolism and expression of lipogenic enzymes in adipose tissue of lean and overweight humans (link) | Trial | 2004 | Minehira et al. |
| De novo lipogenesis during controlled overfeeding with sucrose or glucose in lean and obese women (link) | Trial | 2001 | McDevitt et al. |
| Overfeeding Polyunsaturated and Saturated Fat Causes Distinct Effects on Liver and Visceral Fat Accumulation in Humans (link) | Trial | 2014 | Rosqvist et al. |
| A Randomized Study of the Effects of Additional Fruit and Nuts Consumption on Hepatic Fat Content, Cardiovascular Risk Factors and Basal Metabolic Rate (link) | RCT | 2016 | Agebratt et al |
| Effect of 8 weeks of overfeeding on ectopic fat deposition and insulin sensitivity: testing the "adipose tissue expandability" hypothesis (link) | RCT | 2014 | Johannsen et al. |
| Experimental obesity in man: cellular character of the adipose tissue (link) | Trial | 1971 | Salans et al. |
| Regional differences in cellular mechanisms of adipose tissue gain with overfeeding (link) | Trial | 2010 | Tchoukalova et al. |
Fat versus carbohydrate overfeeding (6)
| Study | Type | Year | Authors |
| Fat and carbohydrate overfeeding in humans: different effects on energy storage (link) | Trial | 1995 | Horton et al. |
| Effects of isoenergetic overfeeding of either carbohydrate or fat in young men (link) | Trial | 2000 | Lammert et al. |
| Macronutrient disposal during controlled overfeeding with glucose, fructose, sucrose, or fat in lean and obese women (link) | Trial | 2000 | McDevitt et al. |
| Opposite Regulation of Insulin Sensitivity by Dietary Lipid Versus Carbohydrate Excess (link) | Trial | 2017 | Lundsgaard |
| Short-term overeating results in incomplete energy intake compensation regardless of energy density or macronutrient composition (link) | Crossover | 2014 | Apolzan et al. |
| Effects of short-term overfeeding with fructose, fat and fructose plus fat on plasma and hepatic lipids in healthy men (link) | 2010 | Sobrecases et al. |
Protein overfeeding (4)
| Study | Type | Year | Authors |
| Effect of Dietary Protein Content on Weight Gain, Energy Expenditure, and Body Composition During Overeating (link) | Metabolic ward (RCT) | 2012 | Bray et al. |
| Effect of protein overfeeding on energy expenditure measured in a metabolic chamber (link) | Metabolic ward (RCT) | 2015 | Bray et al. |
| Increased Protein Intake during Overfeeding Increases Energy Expenditure, Satiety, and Urinary Cortisol (presentation) | Trial | 2015 | Graham et al. |
| Additional protein intake limits weight regain after weight loss in humans (link) | Trial | 2005 | Lejeune et al. |
Strength training plus overfeeding (7)
| Study | Type | Year | Authors |
| Daytime and nighttime casein supplements similarly increase muscle size and strength in response to resistance training earlier in the day (Free full text) | RCT | 2018 | Joy et al. |
| Effects of High vs. Low Protein Intake on Body Composition and Maximal Strength in Aspiring Female Physique Athletes Engaging in an 8-Week Resistance Training Program (Free full text) | Trial | 2018 | Campbell et al. |
| Daily Overfeeding from Protein and/or Carbohydrate Supplementation for Eight Weeks in Conjunction with Resistance Training Does not Improve Body Composition and Muscle Strength or Increase Markers Indicative of Muscle Protein Synthesis and Myogenesis in Resistance-Trained Males (full text) | Trial | 2016 | Spillane and Willoughby |
| The effects of a high protein diet on indices of health and body composition (link) | RCT | 2016 | Antonio et al. |
| A High Protein Diet Has No Harmful Effects: A One-Year Crossover Study in Resistance-Trained Males (link) | Crossover | 2016 | Antonio et al. |
| The effects of consuming a high protein diet (4.4 g/kg/d) on body composition in resistance-trained individuals (full text) | RCT | 2014 | Antonio et al. |
| A high protein diet (3.4 g/kg/d) combined with a heavy resistance training program improves body composition in healthy trained men and women (full text) | RCT | 2015 | Antonio et al. |
Energy expenditure during overfeeding (11)
| Study | Type | Year | Authors |
| Effects of weight gain induced by controlled overfeeding on physical activity (full text) | Metabolic ward (RCT) | 2014 | Apolzan et al. |
| Short-term, mixed-diet overfeeding in man: no evidence for "luxuskonsumption" (link) | Trial | 1985 | Ravussin et al. |
| Thermogenesis in humans during overfeeding with medium-chain triglycerides (link) | Trial | 1989 | Hill et al. |
| Spontaneous overfeeding with a 'cafeteria diet' in men: effects on 24-hour energy expenditure and substrate oxidation (link) | Trial | 1995 | Larson et al. |
| Metabolic adaptation to caloric restriction and subsequent refeeding: the Minnesota Starvation Experiment revisited (link) | Trial | 2015 | Müller et al. |
| Effects of energy imbalance on energy expenditure and respiratory quotient in young and older men: A summary of data from two metabolic studies (link) | 1996 | Saltzman and Roberts | |
| Effects of Age on Energy Expenditure and Substrate Oxidation During Experimental Overfeeding in Healthy Men (link) | Trial | 1996 | Roberts et al. |
| Decreased thermic effect of a mixed meal during overnutrition in human obesity (link) | Trial | 1989 | Katzeff and Danforth |
| Energy expenditure and subsequent nutrient intakes in overfed young men (link) | Trial | 1990 | Roberts et al. |
| Efficiency of autoregulatory homeostatic responses to imposed caloric excess in lean men (link) | 2008 | Siervo et al. | |
| Adaptation to overeating in lean and overweight men and women (link) | Trial | 2008 | Webb and Annis |
Overfeeding and hormones (5)
| Study | Type | Year | Authors |
| Response of leptin to short-term and prolonged overfeeding in humans (link) | Trial | 1996 | Kolaczynski et al. |
| Hormonal response to overfeeding (link) | Trial | 1989 | Forbes et al. |
| Effects of short-term carbohydrate or fat overfeeding on energy expenditure and plasma leptin concentrations in healthy female subjects (link) | Trial | 2000 | Dirlewanger |
| Dietary-induced alterations in thyroid hormone metabolism during overnutrition (link) | Review | 1979 | Danforth et al. |
| Short-term, high-fat overfeeding impairs glycaemic control but does not alter gut hormone responses to a mixed meal tolerance test in healthy, normal-weight individuals (link) | Trial | 2017 | Parry et al. |
Observational studies (1)
| Study | Type | Year | Authors |
| Overeating with and without loss of control: Associations with weight status, weight-related characteristics, and psychosocial health (link) | Observational | 2015 | Goldschmidt et al. |
Genetics and gene expression (3)
| Study | Type | Year | Authors |
| Genotype-controlled changes in body composition and fat morphology following overfeeding in twins (link) | Trial | 1986 | Poehlman et al. |
| Changes in gene expression in skeletal muscle in response to fat overfeeding in lean men (link) | Trial | 2007 | Meugnier et al. |
| Beta-2 adrenergic receptor variants are associated with subcutaneous fat accumulation in response to long-term overfeeding (link) | Trial | 2001 | Ukkola et al. |
Other studies (15)
| Study | Type | Year | Authors |
| Eight weeks of overfeeding alters substrate partitioning without affecting metabolic flexibility in men (link) | Trial | 2017 | Peterson et al. |
| Serum sex steroids and steroidogenesis-related enzyme expression in skeletal muscle during experimental weight gain in men (link) | Trial | 2014 | Sato et al. |
| Short-Term Overfeeding Increases Circulating Adiponectin Independent of Obesity Status (link) | Trial | 2013 | Cahill et al. |
| Predicting metabolic adaptation, body weight change, and energy intake in humans (link) | 2010 | Hall | |
| Impact of prolonged overfeeding on skeletal muscle mitochondria in healthy individuals (link) | Trial | 2017 | Toledo |
| Glycogen storage capacity and de novo lipogenesis during massive carbohydrate overfeeding in man (link) | Trial | 1988 | Acheson et al. |
| Food for Thought: Reward Mechanisms and Hedonic Overeating in Obesity (link) | Reviews | 2017 | Lee and Dixon |
| Effects of cholesterol ester transfer protein (CETP) gene on adiposity in response to long-term overfeeding (link) | Twin study | 2008 | Terán-García et al. |
| Effect of fructose overfeeding and fish oil administration on hepatic de novo lipogenesis and insulin sensitivity in healthy men (link) | Trial | 2005 | Faeh et al. |
| Dietary Protein Content Modulates the Amino-Acid and IGF1 Responses to Sucrose Overfeeding in Humans (link) | Trial | 2017 | Jegatheesan et al. |
| A STUDY OF WEIGHT REGULATION IN THE ADULT HUMAN BODY DURING OVER-NUTRITION (link) | 1922 | Gulick | |
| A comparison of the accuracy of self-reported intake with measured intake of a laboratory overeating episode in overweight and obese women with and without binge eating disorder (link) | Trial | 2013 | Bartholome et al. |
| Rapid development of systemic insulin resistance with overeating is not accompanied by robust changes in skeletal muscle glucose and lipid metabolism (link) | Trial (hospital ward) | 2013 | Cornford et al. |
| Fast-food-based hyper-alimentation can induce rapid and profound elevation of serum alanine aminotransferase in healthy subjects (link) | RCT | 2008 | Kechagias et al. |
| Consuming fructose-sweetened, not glucose-sweetened, beverages increases visceral adiposity and lipids and decreases insulin sensitivity in overweight/obese humans (link) | Inpatient/outpatient study | 2009 | Stanhope et al. 2009 |